Ethnobotanical Leaflets 14: 920- 41, 2010.

Contribution to the Floristic Diversity and Ethnobotany of Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh, India

Naidu, K.A. and *Khasim, S.M.

Department of Botany & Microbiology, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Nagarjuna Nagar, Guntur – 522 510, Andhra Pradesh, India

Corresponding author: *dr_smkhasim@yahoo.co.in

Issued: January 01, 2010

Abstract

The rich and diverse flora of Eastern Ghats of India play a vital role to meet the needs of the people such as food, shelter, fibers, clothing, cosmetics, gums, health care, etc. Nearly three-forth of worlds population, mainly in developing countries especially India, depend on the plant species for primary health care. Eastern Ghats with uneven hill terrain are situated on the adjacent areas of East-coast of India. Ethnobotanical inquiry has been carried out in some pockets, where Savara and Jatapu tribes are residing, particularly in Bhamini Mandal of Srikakulam District, Andhra Pradesh, India. The floristic composition of the study area is dominated by angiosperms. Tribal population of this region has been living in the forests for a quite long time and they are much acquainted with the local flora. The traditional knowledge has been carried out through generations but there is a lack of documentation of this knowledge. This inventory comprises livelihood of tribal people, their cultural values, festivals and 350 practices of about 118 plant species. These practices are broadly classified into two categories viz., general uses and ethnomedicinal uses. Like other modern medicine, tribal medicine system should also have a scientific establishment namely Tribalopathy. Governments of various countries and NGOs should come forward to develop this system of medicine on par with allelopathy system and encourage to start Tribalopathy medical colleges, hospitals, medical stores, etc., across the globe. Forest department and Governments concerned should extent their helping hand to tribes for cultivation of fruit, fiber, pulp yielding and medicinal plants in their natural habitats, so that their economic status may be improved; in this process biodiversity of medicinal plants could be certainly protected. In this paper, the territorial rights of indigenous people have been elaborately discussed.

Key words: Ethnobotany; Indigenous people; Tribal medicine; Territorial rights; Eastern Ghats

Introduction

Over the last century, ethnobotany has been evolved into a specific discipline looking at the people-plant relationship in a multidisciplinary manner, that includes economic botany, pharmacology, public health, ecology and other botanical aspects (Ballick, 1996). Plant provide us food, clothes and other necessities and amenities for comfortable living. Joshi (2004) studied the Ethnobotany of Nepal Himalayas and observed the dependency of local communities on medicinal plants. The vast expanse of the plant kingdom contains substantial number of trees, herbs and shrubs which have unique medicinal value (Kar and Borthakur, 2008). Today, according to the World Health Organization (WHO) about 80% of the World’s Population depend on the traditional medicines for their primary health care needs (Azaizeh et al., 2003). Lately, developed countries also realized the fact that herbal medicines are generally safer and free from side-effects. In countries such as Russia and China, plant drugs have become much more important as they have adopted an integrative system of medicine.

India has rich vegetation with a wide variety of plants, because of the extreme variation in geographical and climatic conditions (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu, 2005). Out of 15,000 species of higher plants in India, medicinal uses have been attributed to 1500 species (Handa, 1998). Traditional healing system play vital role in maintaining the physical and psychological well-beings of tribal people in India. Considering the current rate of deforestation with the concurrent loss of biodiversity, there is a need for accurate documentation of knowledge and experiences of traditional herbalists (Grierson and Afolayan, 1999). The Bhamini mandal of Srikakulam district comes under eastern ghats of Andhra Pradesh is characterized by presence of Jatapu and Savara tribes. This paper attempts to give a comprehensive account of the plants/plant products used by these tribes for treatment of various health disorders as well as for general purposes.

Study Area and Ethnology of Tribal Communities

The study area, i.e., Bhamini mandal is situated on the extreme north tip of Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh, India (Fig. 1). It lays in between the river Vamsadhara and Eastern Ghats namely Tivva Hills. The entire study area comprises 10,610 hectares with uneven terrain of hill cover. General vegetation is dry deciduous to most deciduous. Bhamini mandal inhabited by 41,058 people, among them 8,178 people are tribals representing about 11.07% of the mandal population. Majority tribal communities are Jatapu and Savara. The tribe Jatapu lives together with Savara and their mother tongue belongs to the Dravidian family of language. Savaras are mostly short stature and their facial profile is broad type; their mother tongue belongs to Kol-mundo family of Austro-Asiatic linguistic group. However, both are proficient in speaking Telugu. In every tribal hamlet, there is one headman who deals with out-side affairs. He is called Vejjodu and he is assisted by the priest called Jannodu and Purohit known as Dasari. Marriage functions are conducted by this team. The main occupation of these tribes is agriculture. Shifting cultivation is rampant in this area. Their main income comes from minor forest produce such as gums, nuts, mealplates, betal leaves, tamarind, myrobalans, roots, tubers and honey.

Methodology

The field trips have been planned in such a way that they have covered almost all tribal hamlets such as Palavalasa, Pakkudibadra, Lokharijola, Maniga, Bhamini, Attikothuru and Ganagara of Bhamini mandal. Total field trips made were 24 (11+13) in two subsequent years during 2005-07. The first field trip was completely devoted to acquaint the local chief, priests, headman, elderly people and also gather information on customs, beliefs, taboos, religious rites, food habits, agricultural practices etc., and these were cross-checked, critically analyzed and documented. In subsequent field trips Vaidyas and herbal doctors have been identified in every hamlet. After selecting the elderly and experienced healers (Vaidyas), data on medicinal use of particular plant were obtained through informal interviews based on healers’ availability and willingness to participate in the study. Interviews were also conducted with young healers who are practicing indigenous medicine. Information was considered only after confirmation through five or more informants. Based on information provided by tribals, plant specimen were collected, air-dried and poisoned with saturated mercuric chloride with ethyl alcohol and mounted on herbarium sheets (Cotton, 1996; Jain and Goel, 2005). These plant specimens were identified with the help of standard Floras (Hooker, 1872-97; Gamble, 1915-1936; Lakshminarayana et al., 1997; Pullaiah and Sandhya Rani, 1999). Authors were also consulted Botanical Survey of India (Southern Circle), Coimbatore for identification. Voucher specimens were deposited in Botany Herbarium of Acharya Nagarjuna University.

Results and Discussion

1. Plant diversity and ethnobotany

During investigation, a total of 118 plant species belonging to 110 genera have been recorded (Table 1). These plants are exploited by the tribes for various purposes such as food, medicine and other domestic means. The floristic composition is dominated by higher plants. They are belonging to 60 families come under dicotyledons, monocotyledons and also pteridophytes. Family-wise analysis of species revealed that the Papilionaceae is dominant one with 10 species followed by Poaceae (9), Euphorbiaceae (8) and Ceasalpiniaceae (5); remaining families with one to three species. Among the 110 genera recorded in the present study, eight possess two species.

The present ethnobotanical inventory comprises 350 practices including ethnobotanical uses. Out of 118 species, 78 are used for general purpose. Among them Bambusa arundinacea occupies highest position with 10 uses followed by Borassus flabellifer and Phoenix sylvestris. Plant species of about 97 were reported to be have medicinal properties. Among them highest number of ailments is cured by Calatropis gigantea and Streblus aspera.

The present study revealed that the roots of Helecteris isora were used by savaras for snake-bite and rabies while leaves of for hair wash. However, Topno and Ghosh (1999) reported the use of fruits of H. isora for stomach-pain and polio in Chotanagpur area and roots to treat cholera. Seeds were used in central India for dysentery and stomach pain (Maheswari et al., 1982).

Table 1 . Plants used by Savara and Jatapu tribes for medicinal and general purposes.

Botanical name	Family	Local name	Parts used, mode of preparation and ethnobotanical uses
Abrus precatorius Linn.	Papilionaceae	Mukkutamu, Gulivinda	Leaves are ground along with roots and mixture is given with water orally to prevent pregnancy; leaves are made into paste along with roots, this paste administered in dose of 5 gr per day to improve the rate of sperm count.
Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet	Malvaceae	Adavibenda	Leaf paste is applied externally for boils; root decoction is administered orally to cure of epileptic fits; the paste of ground leaves is dissolved in water and the filtrate is given for jaundice and fever.
Achyranthes aspera Linn.	Amaranthaceae	Duschina, Uttareni	Leaf paste is applied externally for paralysis; piece of stem is chewed for promoting delivery and also relief from toothache.
Adiantum lunulatum Burm. f.	Adiantaceae	Gatumandu, Kusti	Rhizome paste is applied for scorpion-sting and centripede bite.
Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa	Rutaceae	Maredu	Ripened fruit pulp is made into paste and administered orally for dysentry and chronic diarrhoea; fruit pulp along with sesame oil is slightly heated, cooled and filterated, and it is poured in ear for ear-ache and ear infection.
Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wanger	Alangiaceae	Uduga	Roots are chewed for snakebite and their decoction is taken orally as emetic; root bark along with rice washed water is given orally for rabis.
Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth.	Ceasalpiniaceae	Ganera	Wood is more useful for preparing agricultural tools and furniture; stem bark is boiled with toddy for purification and doubling activity.
Aloe barbadensis Mill.	Liliaceae	Musumbramu	Leaf juice is poured into eyes for eye infections; leaf pulp is given with honey for 5-7 days to cure irregular menstruation.
Amarphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennstedt.) Nicolson	Araceae	Manchikanda	Underground stem edible
Ammania baccifera Linn.	Lytheraceae	Agnivendramu	Whole plant paste is applied externally for boils; plant decoction is taken twice a day for about 2-3 weeks for haematuria and urinary infection.
Anacardium occidentale Linn.	Anacardiaceae	Seedi, Jidi mamidi	Stem bark along with stem bark of Pongamia pinnata is crushed and obtained sap which is applied externally for skin diseases; false fruits are also edible and are used for alcoholic preparation.
Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.	Anacardiaceae	Anasapanasa, Anasapandu	The juice of young leaves mixed with molasses and it is given with empty stomach to remove intestinal worms; fruits are edible.
Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees	Acanthaceae	Resa, Kambarapadde	Roots are made into juice along with leaves and given internally to kill the intestinal worms; leaves juice is mixed with sesame oil and heated mildy and applied on leprosy patches; whole plant juice is administered orally for curing of fever and cancer.
Annona reticulata Linn.	Annonaceae	Ramaphalam	Fruits are edible sweet and blood purifiers.
Aristida funiculata Trin. and Rupr.	Poaceae	Chipurugaddi	Dried Inflorescences are used as brooms
Aristolochia indica Linn.	Arstolochiaceae	Nalla eswari	Powder of burned leaves is mixed with Semecarpus indica seed coat oil and applied over ringworm and eczema; whole plant is made into paste and applied externally for curing psoriasis.
Atylosia scarabaeoides (L.) Benth.	Papilionaceae	Adavi vulava	Entire plant is given as fodder to cattle for curing of diarrohea.
Azima tetracantha	Salvadoraceae	Vuppukampa	Dried plants are burnt and fumigated as mosquito repellent.
Bambusa arundinacea (Rets.) Willd.	Bambusaceae	Bongu veduru	Decoction is made from the membrane inside the culm and taken orally twice a day for haematuria; tillers along with stem barks of Baringtonia acutangula and Manilkara hexandra are made into paste and the paste is taken internally for curing of piles; tender tillers are used for vegetable curry making; dried tillers are pounded and a beverage (like tea) is prepared; mats, baskets and supporting rods for roof are made from culms.
Baleria prionitis Lonn.	Acanthaceae	Subbijing, Mullagorinta	Ground roots with garlic bulbs and salt made into paste and administered orally to cure throat ulcers.
Barringtonia acutongula (L.) Gaertn.	Barringtoniaceae	Kurpa, Kadapachettu	Root paste is applied on effected areas for rheumatic pains.
Bauhinia racemosa Lamk.	Ceasalpiniaceae	Bodantamkura	The juice of young leaf is poured into eyes for infection; stem bark is crushed and filterate is mixed with goat milk and is given orally for epilepsy; tender leaves are used as vegetable leaves.
Bauhinia vahlii Wight and Arn.	Caesalpiniaceae	Addakulu	Aqueous extract of the roots is given thrice a day orally for syphilis; stem fibre is used for making ropes and cordage.
Bixa orellana Linn.	Bixaceae	Japra, Jafra	Root extract is taken regularly till the control of fever.
Blumea mollis (D.Don) Merr.	Asteraceae	Sungha, Kukka Pogaku	Ground leaf is made into paste and applied on forehead for headache.
Borassus flabellifer Linn.	Arecaceae	Tatichettu	Seed endosperm is edible and cooling; toddy (entoxicated drink) tapped from cut female spadices; ramenta (browny hairs) of young leaves is used for curing of cuts.
Bridelia cinerascens Gehrtn.	Euphorbiaceae	Anemu, Kosengi	Roasted stem bark with sesame oil is applied on painful areas or allergy subsides by insect-string; fruits are edible.
Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub	Papilionaceae	Moduga chettu	Root bark decoction is given internally for blood pressure; the crushed stem bark with sesame oil is filtered and administrated for antifertility; leaves are used as beedi wrappers.
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb.	Caesalpiniaceae	Gachakaya	Seeds are ground with sesam oil and the extract is given for abortion; leaf paste is administered to treat cholera in cattle.
Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br.	Asclepiadaceae	Jilledu	Root decoction is given for preventing from fever at delivery time; dried flower powder is mixed with honey and is taken orally for asthama; the milky latex is applied for curing of toothache; root bark is ground and made into pills and these are given thrice a day for snakebite; fibre from the stem is used for making ropes.
Canna coccinea Mill. Gard.	Liliaceae	Metta tamara	Roots are ground and paste is given internally for snakebite; rhizome is ground along with dried ginger and applied on forehead for headache.
Capparis zeylanica Linn.	Capparidaceae	Subjing, Aridonda	Ground stem bark is to be boiled in water and the decoction be given for cough and wounds in throat; the boiled root bark in sesame oil is cooled and filterate poured into ear for earache and pus formation.
Cardiospermum helicacabum Linn.	Sapindaceae	Budda Kakara teega	Leaf paste along with castor oil is applied on burns; entire plant paste is applied externally for rheumatic pains.
Careya arborea Roxb.	Barringtoniaceae	Kumbi chettu	Stem bark along with leaves and black pepper are ground and the extract is mixed with curd in equal ratio and given for diarrhoea; wood is used for preparing furniture.
Carica papaya Linn.	Caricaceae	Bappanna kaya	Fruits are edible; root bark paste and also unripened fruits are taken as galactogogues.
Caryota urens Linn.	Arecaceae	Jilimikallu, Jeelugu	Toddy is collected from cut inflorescence stalk, working as aphrodisiac and it also clears urinary disorders and stones; nut powder used for hairwash as anti dandruff powder.
Cassia fistula Linn.	Caesalpiniaceae	Rela	Fruit pulp with senna leaves paste is given as laxative; stem bark along with the stem barks of Mango, Rauvolfia serpentine and Piper longum are ground and the mixture is given for jaundice.
Cassia obtusifolia Linn.	Caesalpiniaceae	Tantemu akulu	Seed decoction is given for malarial fever; leaf juice is taken orally for free motions and tender leaves are used as vegetable leaves.
Cajanus cajan (L.) Mill	Papilionaceae	Rogo, Kandulu	Leaves are crushed and the extract is administered for stomach pain; seeds are used as dal (pulses).
Cayratia auriculata (Roxb.)	Vitaceae	Kutamu	Leaf paste is applied externally for eczema; leaves are ground with turmeric powder and paste applied on the spots of chicken pox.
Chloroxylon swietenia DC.	Rutaceae	Billakarra	Wood is hard and it is used for preparation of agricultural implements and furniture.
Cipadessa baccifera (Roth.) Miq.	Meliaceae	Ranaberi	Roots are ground, extract is given internally to cure of malaria.
Cissus quadrangularis Linn.	Vitaceae	Nalleru	Tender stems and leaves are cooked as vegetable curry; leaf curry is eaten against bronchitis.
Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Hook.	Euphorbiaceae	Vodisaku	Leaves are mildy heated and made into paste and, it is used for prevention of ulcers that are in between fingers.
Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon	Verbenaceae	Gantu barangi	Roots are chewed for snakebite; roots are ground with Rauvolfia serpentina roots in equal proportion and this paste is administered orally along with water to children for stomachache; leave, stem juice and Calotropis gigantia roots are boiled with castor oil and sesame oil, cooled and applied on affected areas for rhumatism.
Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston	Cochlospermaceae	Kondagogu	Gum is obtained from stem bark; leaf decoction is used for hair wash.
Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott.	Araceae	Sarikanda	Tuberous stem is used as vegetable curry.
Commelina benghalensis Linn.	Commelinaceae	Kunthuroga	Plants without roots are used as vegetable leaf curry; plant paste is applied for treating yoke sores in cattle and plant is used as fodder.
Cucurbita maxima Duch.	Cucurbitaceae	Tiyya gummadi	Fruits are used as vegetable curry; dried fruit is used for preparation of musical instruments.
Curcuma longa Linn.	Zingiberaceae	Pasupu	Tender rhizome paste is given as anti vomiting agent; rhizome powder along with boiled rice juice is taken for cooling; rhizomes along with Acalypha indica leaves are ground and this paste applied on boils.
Cyperus rotundus Linn.	Cyperaceae	Tunga dumpa	Tuberous stolens are crushed and extract along with honey is taken for diarrhoea and indigestion.
Datura metel Linn.	Solanaceae	Nalla ummetta	Applied oil on both surfaces of leaf is mildly heated and tied on breast for controlling excessive formation of milk.
Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Etting	Loranthaceae	Bajanika	Powder of flowers is given to treat malarial fever.
Dioscorea bulbifera Linn.	Dioscoreaceae	Kurakanda	Tubers are boiled in water and then prepared curry to eat for curing of giddiness.
Dioscorea pentaphylla Linn.	Dioscoreaceae	Aarekategalu	Tuberous underground stem is used as vegetable curry; root paste is given orally for cold and cough.
Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb.	Ebenaceae	Tumiki chettu, Beedi aku	Wood ash is used as detergent; ripen fruits are eaten for dysentry; leaves are used as beedi wrapper.
Echinochloa colonum (L.) Link, Hort.	Poaceae	Vudalu	Grains are used as food; Young plant parts are used as fodder.
Ehretia microphylla Lamk.	Boraginaceae	Chepakukura	Leaves are used as vegetable and leaf curry is used for controlling diabetes; roots decoction is taken orally against syphilis.
Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.	Poaceae	Chollu	Nutritious syrup is called “Ambali” prepared from powder of grains; leaf paste is applied on wounds.
Erythrina variegata Linn.	Papilionaceae	Badita chettu	Flower powder is given with milk as aphrodisiac; the dried, pounded, stembark should be given with rice water, once in a day for leucorrhoea.
Euphorbia hirta Linn.	Euphorbiaceae	Guggira	Whole plant is sued as vegetable leaf and curry is eaten as galactogogues; whole plant decoction is taken for gonorrhoea; collected latex is for eye infections.
Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) Linn.	Convolvulaceae	Vishnu Krantha	Dried plant powder with honey is taken as brain tonic; leaves are ground along with onion bulbs and paste is given to cure jaundice.
Ficus benghalensis Linn.	Moraceae	Marrichettu	Latex is applied for the cracks, boils and blisters on bottom of leg.
Gmelina arborea Roxb.	Verbenaceae	Parsini	Seed juice is used as antidandruff and cooling agent; wood is used for preparing agricultural tools; piece of stem is used as tooth cleaner.
Helicteres isora Linn.	Sterculiaceae	Nulitada	Root powder is administered internally as an antidote for snakebite; an aqueous extract of the roots is given for rabies.
Heliotropium indicum Linn.	Boraginaceae	Naga danti	Roots and leaves are ground and made into paste and it should be applied externally on scorpion-sting and centeped bite.
Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br.	Asclepiadaceae	Sugandhapala	Roots are ground and the extract is given to reduce fever, dried root powder is given internally for snake bite; root decoction administered as blood purifier.
Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F. Muell.	Violaceae	Ratna purusa	The whole filtrated crushed plant is given for gastric disorders; whole plant along with Tragia involucrata roots and Cassia tora flowers is made into paste, and given orally to remove sterility.
Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit.	Lamiaceae	Godrundal	Seed paste is applied on ulcers; seed oil applied externally for joint pains; seeds and roots are dried and pounded and the powder administered as diuretic.
Imperata cylindrica (L.)	Poaceae	Darba gaddi	Dried leaves are used for thatching.
Jatropha gossipifolia Linn.	Euphorbiaceae	Yerrammatalliaku	Piece of stem is chewed for removing toothache; the applied castor oil on leaves is heated mildly and kept on boils and blisters.
Justicia adhatoda Linn.	Acanthaceae	Adasaramu	Leaves are expectorant and leaf juice is taken internally to cure of bronchitis; dried inflorescence and leaves are burnt and the smoke inhaled to cure of asthma; decoction of leaves along with jaggery and water is kept in an earthen pot for month and administered orally against tuberculosis.
Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standley	Cucurbitaceae	Anapa	Tender fruits are used as vegetable curry; ripened fruit wall is used for making musical instruments and water glasses.
Lannea coromandelica (Hou’tt.) Merr.	Anacardiaceae	Dumpidi	Stem bark decoction is taken twice a day for curing of chest pain and muscle pain; gum is obtained from stembark; wood is used for furniture.
Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lamk.) Verd.	Papilionaceae	Vulavalu	Seeds are cooked and eaten as energetic food; soup prepared from seed powder is taken for rheumatic pains; decoction of seeds with honey is administered orally to dissolve kidney stones.
Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr.	Sapotaceae	Vippachettu	Stem bark is chewed for severe toothache and it is ground with stem barks of neem and Soymida febrifuga and paste is administered to control motions; root bark along with Streblus aspera stem bark is crushed and extract poured into ear for earache; arrack is prepared from flowers.
Mallotus phillippensis (Lamk.) Muell-Arg	Euphorbiaceae	Kumkumachettu	Paste of fruit epicarp is administered for stones in bladder; fruit powder along with water is given orally against tapeworm and roundworm; dried fruit powder is ued as detergent.
Mimosa pudica Linn.	Mimosaceae	Pimasalongi	Leaf paste is applied on the infected legs to get relief from pain and inflammation caused by the filariasis and related problems.
Momordica dioica Roxb.	Cucurbitaceae	Agaara	Tender fruit curry is utilised as blood purifer; leaf juice is taken along with water to cure of diabetis; rhizome paste is taken orally for controlling heart pain; leaves are crushed with crystal salt and applied on ringworm and scabies.
Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn.	Moringaceae	Muluga	Long inbreath is taken from the odour of crushed stem bark, for controlling cold; tender fruits are used as vegetables; gum is applied on cuts and wounds.
Musa paradisiaca Linn.	Musaceae	Arati	Roots are dried and pounded and, powder along with water is given against gonorrhoea; fruit are edible, alcohol prepared from ripened fruits; leaves are used as meal plates.
Ocimum basilicum Linn.	Lamiaceae	Bhutulasi	Seed paste can prevent from piles; leaf juice is given internally to cure of gout of liver and stomach pain.
Ocimum sanctum Linn.	Lamiaceae	Manchi tulasi	The cooled root decoction is taken internally against malarial fever; the mixture of leaf with honey is taken for bronchitis, cold and cough.
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Benth.	Bignoniaceae	Pampini chetu	Seeds are used as puragative; root bark paste is applied for rheumatism.
Oxalis corniculata Linn.	Oxalidaceae	Puli chinta	Entire plant is made into paste and given orally as laxative and also for indigestion.
Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke, Zeitschr.	Poaceae	Gantelu	Grains are cooked and taken as food.
Phoenix sylvestris (L.) Roxb.	Arecaeae	Eethachettu	Leaf rachis is used as toothbrush; paste of shoot tip is taken against leucorrhea; toddy is collected from cuting inflorescence.
Phyllanthus amarus Schum. and Thonn.	Euphorbiaceae	Nelausiri	Leaf paste is given against blood motions; whole plant is made into paste and mixed with curd, and administered twice a day for a week to cure of jaundice.
Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir.	Euphorbiaceae	Pindi pulla	Branches are used as tooth cleaners; leaf extract is poured in eyes for eye infection; leaf paste is applied on head for removing headache, fever and as cooling agent.
Piper longum Linn.	Piperaceae	Pippalu	Ripened fruits are taken as caraminative; decoction of stem promotes delivery.
Prosopis juliflora (Swartz.) DC.	Mimosaceae	Jalichettu	Leaf paste is applied on head against headache.
Pterospermum xylocarpum (Gaertn.) Sant. and Wagh	Sterculiaceae	Tada chettu	Dried leaves are smoked just like tobacco; wood is used for manufacturing furniture and agricultural implements.
Rauvolfa tetraphylla Linn.	Apocynaceae	Papataku, Patala girada	Root powder is administered internally to control blood pressure; roots paste is applied externally for scorpion-stings; roots along with neem roots ground, mixture is given internally to cure of snakebite; roots mixed with Clerodendrum serratum roots are made into paste and taken orally for stomachache.
Soparia dulcis Linn.	Scrophulariaceae	Dhakshini	whole plant juice along with water is given orally to dissolve kidney stones; root extract is heated mildly and taken internally to cure of dysentery.
Semecarpus anacardium Linn.	Anacariaceae	Simidi jeedi	Arrack is prepared from the false fruits; seed oil is applied on eczema and ringworm.
Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers.	Papilionaceae	Agistepulu	Flower powder along with water is taken to cure of night blindness; stem bark decoction is drunk against fever.
Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv.	Poaceae	Korralu	Grains are cooked and taken as food.
Shorea robusta Gaertn.	Dipterocarpaceae	Guggilam	Leaves are used in preparation of meal-plate and also used in beedi-making; wood for making furniture and agricultural implements.
Sida acuta Burm.	Malvaceae	Kampamokka	Dried plants are used as brooms; root decoction is administered internally to cure urinary disorders.
Sida cordifolia Linn.	Malvacaeae	Tella antisa	Leaves are crushed and tied over the testis for hydrocele; seeds decoction is given orally against gonorrhoea.
Sorghum vulgare Pers.	Poaceae	Jonnalu	Grains are used as food.
Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) A. Juss.	Meliaceae	Somati	Stem bark extract is given twice a day for stomach pain and indigestion; the mixture of stem bark with neem stem bark and Madhuka longifolia stem bark is crushed and made into decoction and taken orally to cure of dysentery and diarrhoea.
Sterculia urens Roxb.	Sterculiaceae	Konda tamara	Gum is collected from stem and applied on skin as softening agent; agricultural tools are prepared from wood.
Streblus asper Lour.	Moraceae	Barinika chettu	Root bark paste can control motions; stem bark along with Madhuca longifolia root bark is crushed; and the filterate is poured into ear against earache; stem bark with neem petioles, Andrographis paniculata roots and stem of Tinospora cordifolia is boiled and cooled decoction is given for typhoid and malaria.
Strychnos potatorum Linn.	Loganiaceae	Indippikkalu	Root bark decoction controls asthma; seed paste is used for hair wash, stem bark extract is given regularly for peurperal fever.
Tephrosia villosa (L.) Pers.	Papilionaceae	Nugu vempali	Root juice is taken for suppressing general weakness; root decoction is given for controlling blood motions.
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC) Wt. and Arn.	Combretaceae	Tella maddi	Stem bark yields orange dye; stem bark paste is applied on bone fractures; stem bark along with flowers is made into paste and given to cure of heat pain; wood ash along with leaf paste is used as detergent and also for hair wash.
Terminalia chebula Retz.	Combretaceae	Karakkai	Fruits along with dried zinger and Piper longum are boiled and the decoction is taken to cure of cough and catarrh. Fruit epicarp can prevent cough; fruit paste can control blood pressure.
Thysanolaena maxima (Roxb.) O. Kuntze	Poaceae	Konda chipuru	Dried inflorescence is used for preparing brooms.
Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook	Menispermaceae	Jivantika	Dried root decoction is taken as aphrodisiac; the extract of plant parts is given to fever as a tonic and also for high blood pressure; roots are pounded and the powder is administered orally as an antidote for snakebite; stem is crushed in rice water along with sugar and this juice is given orally against jaundice.
Tragia involucrata Linn.	Euphorbiaceae	Dulagondiaku	Leaves are ground with fruit and paste is applied on forehead against headache; roots with Cassia tora flowers and Hybanthus enneaspermus whole plant is made into paste and given orally for improving fertility.
Urginea indica (Roxb.) Kanth.	Liliaceae	Adavivulli	Bulb paste along with honey is taken internally as diuretic; paste of the bulb along with sugar candy is given for leucorrhoea.
Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Hook.	Orchidaceae	Saga	Aerial roots are crushed in sesame oil and the paste is applied for rheumatism.
Vigna radiata (L.) Wilezek var.	Papilionaceae	Anumulu	Seeds are used as pulses.
Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.	Papilionaceae	Junumulu	Seeds are used as pulses.
Vitex negundo Linn.	Verbenaceae	Nalli vavioli	Leaf juice is administered to get relief from earache; leaves mixed with tamarind leaves and Calotropis zigantia roots are ground and dissolved in water. It is boiled along with sesame oil and goat milk. Cooled extract is applied on joints for paralysis.
Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.)R. Br.	Apocynaceae	Doddipala	Root bark juice is given as puragative; crushed leaves are applied on painful areas for rhumatism; leaves along with roots are boiled in water.
Zizyphus xylopyrus (Retx.) Willd.	Rhamnaceae	Gottichettu	Leaf paste is applied on pimples; leaves are ground along with latex of Ipomea carnea applied on boils.

Sharma (2006) reported the use of whole plant, especially fronds of Adiantum lunulatum in curing asthmatic bronchitis, fever and hair fall. But Savera and Jatapu tribes of present investigation were using rhizome paste to cure scorpion-sting and centripede-bites. Dagar and Dagar (2004) mentioned the use of Commelina benghalensis to cure sores and scabies, but in Bhamini area it has been used as leaf vegetable and fodder.

Dagar and Dagar (2004) observed the curative property of the same plant for bone fractures, dropsy and also as insecticide. They were also reported the use of Vitex negundo for diarrhoea and also for psychoactive, hyperacidity and diabetes in Arunachal Pradesh. However, the present investigation revealed that the same plant has been used to cure paralysis and ear-ache.

2. Territorial rights of indigenous people

Indigenous and other traditional people have long association with nature and a deep understanding of it. Often they have made significant contribution to the maintenance of many of the earth’s most fragile ecosystems, through their traditional sustainable resource use practices and culture-based respect towards nature. They should be recognised as rightful, equal partners in the development and conservation of natural resources and their territories.

Interior tribes of the study area do not allow the plain area people and officers of Welfare Department unless there is a permission from hamlet headman (Vajjodu). These tribes do not allow the outsiders to enter into their boundaries without proper rapport. They feel that the forest is their own property and incoming outsiders may do harm for their culture and forest resources. In 1874, Scheduled district Act kept substantial adivasi areas outside the normal administration. Later, the administration classified most adivasi as ‘Scheduled Tribes’ and established ‘Scheduled Areas’ designed to protect them from incursion and also granting colonial administrators considerable discretionary powers over the areas (Colchester and Mckay, 2004). The 1901 Land Revenue Code also prevented the sale of tribal land without permission of the Collector.

Usually tribes of this area believe that forests are made by God. So they feel that they have an every right upon forest for conducting any activity. According to the principle of Swaraj, Indian Government provides constitutional provision granting autonomy to villages and extending same provision to allow the “tribal self-rule” at the local level under the 1996 Panchayats Act (Extension to Scheduled areas).

Because of religious beliefs and certain taboos, some forest pockets are protected by tribes as sacred groves. The Biological Diversity Bill (no. 93 of 2000), Wildlife Protection Act (1972) and the protection of plant varieties and Farmer’s Rights Act (2001) support the tribal people for conservation of sacred groves and their own territories.

Conclusions

In the modern age, traditional knowledge has been disappearing due to lack of documentation, impact of industrialization, urbanization and modernization of ethnic societies. More studies will be required on the documentation of folklore, tribalore and phytochemical analysis of crude drugs used by herbal practitioners, who definitely hold some of the secrets of human health. In the light of above facts, the present study suggested the following recommendations:

1. Ethnomedicinal plants need to be investigated for pharmacological activity; on the basis of ethnotherapeutics, being practiced by tribals, clinical trials should be conducted for their safe use. This would be helpful in discovery of new drugs of herbal origin. The organised collection, storage and processing of crude herbal drugs for pharmaceutical industries would provide employment to the tribal and rural youth that in turn helpful in their economic upliftment.

2. Like other traditional medicine, tribal medicine system should also have a scientific establishment namely the Tribalopathy. Government of India and NGOs should come forward to develop this system of medicine on par with allelopathy system and encourage to start Tribalopathy medical colleges, hospitals, medical stores etc., across the country.

3. Forest department and Government should extend the helping hand to tribes for cultivation of fruit, fibre, pulp yielding and medicinal plants in their natural habitats, so that their economic status may be improved; in this process biodiversity of medicinal plants could be certainly protected.

4. Government of India should introduce a new scheme such as “food for work”, for the development of green belts, forest plantation and protection of forests.

5. Anthropogenic activities such as shifting (podu) cultivation, cutting down of trees, forest fires, grazing and clearing of forest for the sake of development etc., are the order of the day for the depletion of forest resources. These activities should be prevented and dealt with an iron-hand by implementing various wildlife Acts stringently.

6. Panchayati level policies and committees should be made with regard to sustainable utilisation of wild resources and also for prevention of massive destruction of natural habitats. These committees could be served as “watch-dogs” to prevent the illegal collection of wild medicinal plants.

7. In near future, the valuable plant species may become extinct due to extensive anthropogenic activities. Therefore, necessary steps should be taken for the conservation of valuable species by opening botanical gardens and declaring some selected areas as Biosphere Reserves so as to protect the existing flora of varied importance.

Acknowledgements

Authors are thankful to villagers and medical practitioners for their benevolent guidance and valuable information; also grateful to A.P. Forest Department for logistic support during field trips.

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