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Ethnobotanical Leaflets 13: 548-63, 2009. Ethnobotanical Plants Used for Oral Healthcare
Among the Esan Tribe of 1Idu, M., 2Umweni, A. A., 1Odaro, T. and 1Ojelede L. 1Department of Botany, Issued Abstract Ethnobotanical
survey of plants used as chewing sticks for oral healthcare was conducted in Esan region, of Key words: Ethnobotanical, Oral
Healthcare, Introduction The long and venerable history of
the use of plants to improve dental health and promote oral hygiene has been
known since antiquity. Cuttings of root, stem or
twigs of trees and shrubs have served as traditional toothbrush commonly
called chewing sticks. Almas (2002) and Hyson
(2003), reported that chewing sticks were in use from as early as some 7000
years ago by the Babylonians, and later throughout the Greek and Roman
empires; it is also believed to be the precursor of the modern day toothbrush
and was used in Chewing sticks are important
non-timber forest products (NTFP) widely used for dental cleaning in tropical
Most people of Esan
rural communities rely on plants for their primary healthcare needs, they go
about their daily activities with sticks protruding from their mouths which
they chew or use to scrub their teeth. These sticks they say provide not just
dental hygiene but also cure variety of other ills. Human depended on plants
for cure of most ailments until scientific advances introduced chemical
synthesis (Isichei, 2005). Dependence on medicines
derived from indigenous plants is especially predominant in developing
countries; this creates the need for the development of traditional medicine
to ensure safe and efficacious practices. The use of medicinal plants is an
important part of traditional medicine in many cultures and is the basis of
on-going efforts to develop new drugs in conventional medicine, and a common
criticism of herbal medicine is the lack of properly designed clinical trials
(Nartey et al.,
2007). An increasing reliance on the use of medicinal plants in the
industrialized societies, have been traced to the extraction and development
of several drugs and chemotherapeutics from these plants as well as from
traditionally used herbal remedies (Idu and Onyibe, 2008), and as such plants have been incorporated
into dentifrices and also the use of plants to provide natural chewing gums
for oral hygiene, to treat toothache, gingivitis and periodontal disease, are
several modern examples for this practice (Bone, 2005). As a result, traditional
healers have put forward many claims about the healing power of the plant
world, some of which have been investigated and substantiated scientifically
(Idu et al.,
2006a). Furthermore, Robbers et al.,
(1996) posited that, plant materials are present in, or have provided the
models for more than 50% of the Western drugs, that is to say, many
commercially proven drugs used in modern medicine were initially in crude
form in traditional or folk healing practices or for other purposes that
suggested potentially useful biological activities. Generally, drug plants
are unique in containing compounds that are end products of biosynthetic
pathways and are usually not needed in such plants’ metabolic processes. In
the field of ethnomedicine, it has been discovered
that therapeutic efficacy was more pronounced when the active compound was
left in a particular combination with other principles naturally present in
plants, than when the active compound was isolated and synthesized in the
laboratory. This indicates that the use of plants as an alternative tool for
dental and oral hygiene is natural and may be more effective. In the study
area, plant species used are selected to suit individual preference, with
more species used because of their contained medicinal properties. At present works on ethnobotanical uses of plants have been documented (Gill
and Akinkumi, 1988; Gill, 1992; Idu
and Olorunfemi, 2002; Ilondu
and Okoegwale, 2002; Ndukwu
and Obute, 2002; Idu and Omoruyi 2003; Idu et al.,2003; Mirutse
et al., 2003; Harsha
et al., 2003; Idu
et al., 2005; Idu
et al., 2006b; Idu
and Osemwegie, 2007; Idu et al., 2007a; Idu
and Onyibe, 2008), still vast store of ethnobotanical information with traditional knowledge is
yet to comprehensively documented. These indigenous practices of the
use of plants in traditional medicine have come about by no more than the
accumulation of knowledge by experiences, which are the basis of the folklore
of plants possessed by many relatively underdeveloped indigenous tribes
today, living with and using plants as part of their day to day existence.
And there exists the danger that these knowledge and practices will rapidly
disappear, through forgetfulness, coupled with urbanization, or conscious
rejection of these knowledge and practices as not being modern or scientific.
There is therefore an urgent need for these indigenous knowledge and
practices to be documented, before they are eliminated. In this paper, an attempt has been
made to enumerate some plant species and their indigenous uses as chewing
sticks for dental and oral healthcare, by the locals of some communities in Esan region of Materials and Methods The fieldwork was carried out in
the month of November, 2007. The study area comprise of the following zones: Esan West, Igueben, Esan Central, Esan North East
and Esan South East Local Government Areas (Figure
1). In each zone a few rural communities were selected in relationship to
their geographical distribution. Direct interaction with local respondents
was adopted to get information about the variety of species used as chewing
sticks. Herbarium specimens of plant species described were pressed, dried
and mounted, and then identified with the aid of taxonomic literatures (Keay, 1989; Gill, 1992; Akobundu
and Agyakwa, 1998) Ethnobotanical
information was collected using direct interviews and discussions with local
people. The informants were carefully selected to represent both male and
female, youth and middle aged. The attributing of local names to the plants
to some extent establishes some sort of relationship between people and
plants and shows that the people are quite familiar with them. Local names of
plants may vary from one community to another, in some cases more than one
name could refer to a particular plant. The plants having traditional
knowledge of utilization among the people of a particular community have been
selected as reference specimens and have been checked from other sites
visited. In the following enumerations, the
plant species used as chewing sticks for oral hygiene, are listed in
alphabetical order. Results and
Discussion
Alchornea cordifolia
(Schum. & Thonn.) Mull.Arg. Family name: Euphorbiaceae Local name: Akowo, uwanwe Part used: Twig, root Folk use: Chewed for
toothache and teeth cleaning. Allophylus
africanus P. Beauv Family name: Sapindaceae Local name: Ebe,
ukpe Part used: Twig, root Folk use: Chewed for teeth
cleaning, toothache and diarrhoea. Anacardium occidentale
Linn Family: Anacardiaceae Local name: Ikashu Part used: Twig Folk use: Chewed for sore
gum and teeth cleaning. Aulococalyx jasminiflora
Hook. F. Family name: Rubiaceae Local name: Amegben Part used: Twig Folk use: Chewed
for teeth cleaning. Azardirachta
indica A. Juss. Family name: Meliaceae Local name: Dongoyaro. Part used: Twig,
stem bark Folk use: Chewed for malaria,
stomach-ache, sore throat, teeth cleaning. Baphia nitidia
Lodd. Family name: Fabaceae Local name: Otua Part used: Twig,
stem Folk use: Chewed
for teeth cleaning. Carpolobia lutea
G. Don. Family name: Pologalaceae Local name: Aswen Part used: Twig,
stem Folk use: Chewed
for stomach-ache and teeth cleaning. Caseari barteri
Mast. Family name: Flacourtiaceae Local name: Ukpakuzon, akpano-eze Part used: Twigs,
stem bark Folk use: Chewed
for sore gum and teeth cleaning. Citrus aurantifolia
(Christm.) Swingle. Family name: Rutaceae Local name: Anumei- negwegwe Part used: Twig,
stem Folk use: Chewed
for vomiting, toothache and teeth cleaning. Citrus sinensis
(Linn.) Osbeck. Family name: Rutaceae Local name: Anumei Part used: Twig,
stem Folk use: Chewed
for vomiting, toothache and teeth cleaning. Dennettia tripetala
Bak. F. Family name: Annonaceae Local name: Ukpakon okhan, ohure, ako Part used: Twig Folk use: Chewed
for toothache and teeth cleaning. Dialium guineense
Willd. Family name: Fabaceae Local name: Ohiome Part used: Twig,
bark Folk use: Chewed
for stomachache and teeth cleaning. Diospyros barteri
Hiern. Family name: Ebenaceae Local name: Elugbe, ivin-oha Part used: Twig Folk use: Chewed
for teeth cleaning. Garcinia kola
Heckel. Family name: Clusiaceae Local name: Edun Part used: Twig Folk use: Chewed
for teeth cleaning. Glypheae brevis (Spreng.) Mona. Family name: Tiliaceae Local name: Uwenriotan, aghemhen Part used: Twig,
stem bark Folk use: Chewed
for diarrhea, fever and teeth cleaning. Irvingia gabonensis (O’Rorke)
Baill. Family name: Irvingiaceae Local name: Ohiele, ogwe (ogbono) Part used: Stem Folk use: Chewed
for teeth cleaning. Measobotrya barteri
(Baill.) Hutch. Family name: Euphorbiaceae Local name: Orua, Oruru Part used: Twig Folk use: Chewed
for waist pain and teeth cleaning. Mallotus oppositifolia
(Geisel) Family name: Euphorbiaceae Local name: Ogheghe Part used: Twig Folk use: Chewed
for oral hygiene and teeth cleaning. Microdesmis
puberula Hook.
F. ex Planch. Family name: Pandaceae Local name: Amama, erankpata Part used: Twig Folk use: Chewed
for sore gum and teeth cleaning especially for elders. Napoleonaea
imperialis P. Beauv. Family name: Lecythidaceae Local name: Ukpakon risa Part used: Twig Folk use: Chewed
for cough and teeth cleaning. Nesogardonia
papaverifera (A. Chev.) R. Capuron. Family name: Sterculiaceae Local name: Urhuaro. Part used: Twig Folk use: Chewed
for oral hygiene and teeth cleaning. Newbouldia
leavis (P. Beauv.) Seamon ex Bureau Family name: Bignoniaceae Local name: Ikhimi Part used: Twig,
stem bark Folk use: Chewed
for toothache, oral hygiene and teeth cleaning. Ocimum basilicum
Linn. Family name: Lamiaceae Local name: Alumonkho Part used: Twig Folk use: Chewed
for oral hygiene, headache, cough and stomachache Paullinia pinnata
Linn. Family name: Sapindaceae Local name: Aza, eka Part used: Root Folk use: Chewed
for diarrhoea and teeth cleaning. Pentaclethra macrophylla
Benth. Family name: Fabaceae Local name: Okpagha Part used: Stem
bark Folk use: Chewed
for stomachache, appetizer, teeth cleaning and
weakness. Piper guineense
Schum. & Thonn. Family name: Piperaceae Local name: Akboko Part used: Root Folk use: Chewed
for oral hygiene and stomachache. Psidium guajava
Linn. Family name: Myrtaceae Local name: Gova Part used: Twig Folk use: Chewed
for toothache and oral hygiene. Sida acuta
Burm. F. Family name: Malvaceae Local name: Alebha Part used: Twig,
stem Folk use: Chewed
for toothache, sore gum and teeth cleaning Sorindeia
mildbraedii
Engl. & V. Brehm. Family name: Anacardiaceae Local name: Ehegogo Part used: Twig,
bark Folk use: Chewed
for oral hygiene. Spondias mombin
Linn. Family name: Anacardiaceae Local name: Okhigha Part used: Twig,
bark Folk use: Chewed
for sore throat and oral hygiene. Vernonia amygdalina
Family name: Asteraceae Local name: Oriwo Part used: Root,
twig Folk use: Chewed
for toothache, stomachache, gingivitis and teeth cleaning. Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides
(Lam.) Zap. & Tim. in Denovia. Family name: Rutaceae Local name: Ukhiaghele, ughanghan Part used: Root
bark Folk use: Chewed
for cough tuberculosis and teeth cleaning. Oral health is part of total health
and essential to quality of life. This is to say that an unhealthy condition
of the mouth and teeth can affect all parts of the body producing much ill
health. Bone (2005) posited that systematic health maybe more affected by
oral hygiene than previously recognized. In this review, he discussed
possible etiological associations between periodontitis
and cardiovascular disease in general, and endocarditis
specifically, as well as rheumatoid arthritis, pneumonia, pre-term birth and
low birth weight. Periodontal inflammation, which
facilitates the entrance of bacteria into the blood stream especially after
chewing food or cleaning the teeth, (either by direct effect from the
bacteria or from the inflammation which their presence may trigger) could
lead to thrombus formation and/or the development of atherosclerotic
lesions. The research which supports role for a few key plants showed that
chewing sticks had significantly lower dental calculus, lower signs of
periodontal disease and a tendency to reduce gingival bleeding than tooth
brush users. Furthermore, in a study that
compared the effect of chewing stick or toothbrush using on plague removal
and dental health, chewing stick resulted in significant reductions in
plague. And another study which compared the levels of 25 oral bacteria in
chewing stick and toothbrush users showed that certain bacteria especially
several oral streptococci species where lower among the chewing stick users.
However, chewing stick was associated with greater gum recession (Bone,
2005). Other studies carried out to access the efficacy of chewing sticks,
have also given favourable results asserting that chewing sticks are suitable
for dental and oral healthcare (Enwonwu, 1974; Sofowora, 1982; Rotimi et al., 1988; Ndugu
et al., 1990; Gazi
et al., 1990; Hattab,
1997; Kassu, 1997; Ugoji et al., 2000; Almas,
2002; Adekunle and Odukoya,
2006; Idu et
al., 2007b). The World Health Organization (WHO)
puts oral disease among the top five causes of burden in ‘lost healthy years’
worldwide (WHO 2004). The commonest dental disease is periodontal diseases
that are mainly as a result of poor oral hygiene. Periodontal diseases are
any pathological processes affecting the periodontal tissues which include
the gums, bone and the ligaments holding the teeth to the bone. It is
essentially caused by bacterial plaque accumulation around the neck of the
teeth and it affects all humans without regard for race or gender. Bacterial
plaque and their products, especially enzymes and endotoxins
initiate the inflammatory process of the diseases. The next common dental disease is dental
caries caused by a combination of taking surgical substance, bacterial plaque
and susceptible tooth surface and it is the main cause of loss of teeth in
younger people. The teeth due to its function should be cleaned at least
twice a day after meal to remove any particle of food lodged between the teeth,
a good flow of saliva helps also in the removal of these food particles, but
this flow is highly reduced at night and also during mouth breathing, it is
therefore necessary that the teeth be cleaned before retiring. If food
remains it is decomposed by bacteria, these bacteria acts on it producing
acids, the acids produced destroy the enamel and expose the dentine to the
action of the bacteria, allowing them to penetrate the pulp cavity causing
pain, when the pulp cavity are irritated, toothache develops, and a decaying
tooth may cause all kinds of disorders including rheumatism, lumbago and
indigestion. This is in line with the research by Bone (2005). The primary function of the teeth
is the mastication of food; in this the movement of the tongue and cheek
muscles aids them. And in order that they should develop correctly and remain
in an efficient and healthy condition these structures must have sufficient
work to do, for no tissue or organ will maintain its strength and efficiency
if it is not exercised. With the modern methods of refining raw materials and
softening of food by various processes of cooking, the necessity for vigorous
muscular action no longer exists, and the stimulating effect of such action
is lost. Especially in the civilized race, the lower part of the face has
been reduced in size, but the teeth have not changed in a corresponding
manner, with the result that people have teeth which are not in harmony with
the size of other features, and have not the room to develop correctly. Therefore, chewing sticks provides this
mechanical feature, which stimulates the growth of the jaw; exercise of the
jaw; and the hardening of the teeth. This supports the report by Ugoji et al.,
(2000) The information and results of the
study leads to the following conclusions: ·The
plant-use in the study area is essentially subsistence-oriented and it needs
modern and scientific approach for sustainable development. ·The
people of the study area have inherited a certain sense of conservation, but
the demand and exploitation of plant resources is inversely proportional to
the conservation and regeneration efforts. ·For
the economic uplift and improvement in quality of life, an organized
plant-use strategy is to be developed. If their resources are pooled together
and harnessed properly, the people of these rural communities can come up
with a standard of preserving their cultures and traditions. The survey of ethnobotanical
plants used for dental and oral healthcare therefore brings to light some
aspects of plant utilization among the Esan of Edo
State Central Nigeria, and the traditional toothbrush or chewing stick is a
major means of keeping oral hygiene in these rural communities, as such the
use of chewing sticks is widely considered a symbol of personal hygiene. The present trend of development of these
communities also indicate that in spite of the establishment of a few modern
health centres, the use of plants and traditional practices will continue to
play a significant role in the socio-cultural life of these communities. The
possession of a protracted span of memory in form of language are other
characteristics peculiar to man which makes it possible to create and
transmit culture, and it should be remarked that culture is not a static
thing, it is an active process, it accumulates and becomes diffused, through
increasing contact with other societies, therefore the culture of any society
changes. Prior to the loss of
indigenous species and elimination of traditional knowledge, efforts should
be made to document useful plant species and vast store of indigenous ethnobotanical knowledge and practices, and also the
development of traditional medicine to ensure safe and efficacious use of ethnobotanical plants in phytomedicine.
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