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Ethnobotanical Leaflets 13: 921-45.
2009. Colophospermum mopane Wood Utilisation in the Northeast of the Limpopo Province, South Africa *1,2R.A. Makhado, 3M.J.
Potgieter and 4D.C.J. Wessels 1Forestry Policy and Strategy, Department of Water
Affairs and Forestry, P/Bag x313, Pretoria, 0001 2Natural Resources and the Environmental, CSIR, P. O.
Box 395, Pretoria, 0001 3Department of Biodiversity, University of Limpopo, P/Bagx1106, Sovenga 4Research Development and Administration, University
of Limpopo, P/Bagx1106, Sovenga *Corresponding
author: Email: makhado2002@yahoo.com
or makhador@dwaf.gov.za ��� Issued 01 May 2009 AbstractThe use of Colophospermum mopane wood was quantified from six villages in the northeast of the Limpopo Province, South Africa. One hundred and eighty individuals were interviewed from the selected villages. Three villages were located in the depleted woodlands and the remaining three at abundant woodlands. Traditional governance structures within the selected villages and relevant conservation department officials were also interviewed. Colophospermum mopane is an essential source of fuelwood and provide poles used for construction of traditional structures. Each family uses 6.8 � 0.1 kg of Colophospermum mopane fuelwood for cooking day-1 in the woodland depleted villages, while 8.2 � 0.2 kg is used at the woodland abundant villages. Colophospermum mopane is preferred for construction of traditional structures because its wood is durable and is able to resists the effects of termites and wood borers. Key words:
Colophospermum mopane,
fuelwood, poles. Introduction Colophospermum mopane dominates the hot, low-lying areas of south
tropical Africa (Werger and Coetzee,
1978). The area covered under mopane woodland in
southern Africa is estimated to be about 555 000 km2. The Limpopo and Mpumalanga
Provinces of South Africa have about 23 000 km2 (Mapaure, 1994). Mopane woodland
is distributed along the Limpopo River in South
Africa (Mapaure, 1994), contributing to about 50%
of the vegetation in the Kruger National Park (Fenton, 1993). The controls on
the growth and distribution of Colophospermum
mopane in southern Africa are uncertain, but
seem to be influenced by edaphic (Madams, 1990; O�Connor, 1992) and climatic
factors (Timberlake, 1995; Okitsu, 2005). Colophospermum mopane is a drought tolerant species confined to areas of
low to moderate rainfall, dominated by alluvium and colluvium soils
(Timberlake, 1995). Mapaure (1994) is of the
opinion that its distribution is principally influenced by moisture
availability expressed through altitude, rainfall and soil texture. In
southern Africa, the mopane woodland lies in areas
between 300 and 1000 m altitudes, typified by a mean maximum summer
temperature of about 30oC and a mean annual rainfall of between
400 and 700 mm (Werger and Coetzee,
1978; Timberlake, 1995). Colophospermum mopane occurs generally in frost-free areas. Where
frost does occur, it becomes the limiting factor to its growth (Werger and Coetzee, 1978;
White, 1983). Despite the value of mopane woodland, its resource are over utilised, mis-managed and even transformed to other land-use. This
has resulted in the circles of degradation surrounding the villages. The main
drivers of woodland resource depletion around the villages are the result of
high population pressure (Shackleton et al., 2001), coupled with poverty (Shackleton et al., 2000; Watson and Dlamini,
2003), lack of woodland management responsibilities and diminished power of
traditional leaders (Evans et al.,
2000; von Maltitz and Shackleton, 2004). Lack of
technical capacity to enforce conservation regulations increases the
likelihood of infringement of regulations. The outcome is high pressure on
local fuelwood resources (Gandar,
1983), increased distance (Mercer and Soussan,
1992) and time (Campbell et al.,
1993) to harvest woodland resources. The purpose of this study is to quantify
the amount of fuelwood and poles harvested for
rural livelihood system in the northeast of the Limpopo
Province, South Africa. Materials and Methods Study Area
Research was conducted in
six rural villages in the north-eastern part of the Limpopo
Province, South Africa (Figure 1). The area is demarcated under that the
Greater Giyani Municipality. The Greater Giyani Municipality borders the Kruger National Park on
the eastern side. Town such as Thohoyandou lies to
the north and Phalaborwa to the south. The majority
of the inhabitants in the Greater Giyani
Municipality are Shangaan and their language is Xitsonga (Peltzer, 1998). The
geographical area of the Greater Giyani
Municipality is 2 967 km2. The SigmaScan
Image Analysis results of the Greater Giyani
Municipality map (Figure 1) show that 59.4%
of the total area of the Greater Giyani
Municipality consists of cultivated areas, 30% by woodland and bushland. The town of Giyani
accounts for 0.7% of the total area, while 5.4% is taken up by villages. The
degraded areas account for approximately 5.0%. The villages selected in
this study are Homu 14A (23.30385o S and
30.80417o E), Homu 14C (23.31561o S
and 30.740526o E), Mapayeni (23.35412o
S and 30.82297o E), Makhuva (23.58236o
S and 30.97446o E), Zaba (23.57581o
S and 30.70878o E) and Mbaula (23.60878o
S and 31.03742o E) (Figure 1). The selected villages were grouped
as woodland depleted villages (Homu 14A, Homu 14C and Mapayeni) and
woodland abundant villages (Makhuva, Zaba and Mbaula). The estimated number of
people at woodland
depleted villages is approximately 19 500, compared to 16 000 at woodland
abundant villages (Table 1). At the municipal level, the estimated population
in 1996 was 217 454, which increased to 237 438 people in 2001 (Statistics
S.A.: Census 2001). This implies that there is a 2% increase in human
population per year. As the population increases, it consequently results in
the expansion of human settlements and cultivated areas to meet human basic
needs. In 2001, 55% of the people
in the Greater Giyani Municipality were unemployed
and 54.3% have no electricity. Even where there is electricity, it is
estimated that 80% of villagers rely on fuelwood
for cooking and heating (Statistics S.A.: Census 2001). The
majority of the rural inhabitants depend on old age pensions, subsistence
agriculture, and on harvesting woodland resources for household nutrition and
income generation. The majority of people, particularly females are
unemployed, illiterate and live below the poverty line (Table 1). The climate of the Greater
Giyani Municipality is characterised by low
rainfall and high temperatures. The mean annual rainfall in the Greater Giyani Municipality is 386 mm and the temperature varies
from a minimum of 15 oC in winter to a
maximum of 29 oC in summer (South Africa
Weather Service, 1980-2003). The vegetation in the
Greater Giyani Municipality is classified under the
lowveld mopaneveld
savannas (Rutherford et al., 2006), characterised by a mixture of trees, shrubs and grasses. In this
area, Colophospermum mopane
occurs in abundance together with many other trees species such as Combretum apiculatum,
Sclerocarya birea, Dichrostachys cinerea, Terminalia
sericea, Diopsyros mespiliformis, Cassine aethiopica, Dalbergia melanoxylon, Acacia
species and Commiphora species. The soil is loamy sands
and clayey soil and is characterised by gentle undulating valleys of the Soutpansberg mountain range (Acocks,
1988). The underline geology of the area is characterised by the
metasediments of the Giyani Greenstone Belt
(Rutherford et al., 2006), with common rocks such as granite, sandstone,
shale and basalt. Methods The research was
carried-out from August 2004 to May 2005. Data in this study was collected
through individual household surveys, participatory group interviews and by
quantifying the amount of wood used daily by householders in six selected
villages. A semi-structured interview was conducted with 180 villagers (30
people household-1 village-1), 13 traditional leaders
and 10 officials from conservation departments. Local nature conservation
officials were asked to select three grouped woodland depleted villages (Homu 14A, Homu14C and Mapayeni)
and the other three woodland abundant villages (Makhuva,
Zaba and Mbaula). The
selection of villages was based on the variation and abundance of woodland
resources occurrence around the villages. Permission to interview villagers
was obtained from the appropriate traditional authorities. The gender split
interviewed was 60% women and 40% men in the woodland depleted villages
versus 59% women and 41% men in the woodland abundant villages (Table 1). The
questionnaire was divided into three sections: for the villagers (randomly
selecting householders); the traditional leaders; and for the relevant
officials from conservation departments. Interviews
were conducted in Tsonga language to avoid misunderstanding with the
respondents. The amount of wood used by
villagers for fuelwood and construction of
traditional structures was quantified by measuring the length, circumference
and diameter of poles, and also weighed (kg) using a potable balance. The
number of samples in both woodland depleted villages and woodland abundant
villages for fuelwood was 30 and 15 for
construction. The volume of wood used for fuelwood
and construction purposes was calculated as: V (m3) = l x x (1/2d)2 x n. Where
V = volume, l = length, =3.1428, d = diameter and n = number of poles. The underground
portions of inserted poles in the soil were included in the calculations
through estimation gathered from the householders. Quantification of fuelwood used by villagers per day was based on the
amount of wood used for cooking porridge once in a day. This was multiplied
by total number of days per year (365) to give the annual totals. The number
of adults benefiting from selling woodland resources was estimated by
multiplying the fraction selling by the total population in the village. The
SPSS ver. 12 statistical programme was used to analyse the socio-economic
data. Data was analysed quantitatively using descriptive statistics. Results and Discussion
Fuelwood Fuelwood is an essential energy source to over 85% of
southern Africa rural inhabitants (MacGarry, 1987; Erkkil� and Siiskonen, 1992).
Eighty four percent of villagers in the woodland depleted villages and 76% in
the woodland abundant villages use fuelwood as
their main source of energy for cooking and heating (Table 1). Fuelwood is currently, and likely to remain the primary
source of energy in rural areas in the foreseeable future. Reliance
on fuelwood
Seventy seven percent of
people in the woodland depleted village and 87% in the woodland abundant
villages are unemployed (Table 1) and thus heavily rely on the nearby
woodland for energy supply and poles for construction of activities. Rural
people live without cash and with no affordable alternative energy sources
but wood (Willis, 2004), as fuelwood is the
cheapest, available and most accessible source of energy (Okello
et al., 2001; Mercer and Soussan, 1992; Liengme 1983).
The wood of Colophospermum mopane has energy content of 21.570 kJ/kg (Tietema et al.,
1991), making it to be preferred for cooking. Although electricity, paraffin
and gas are available in the study area, villagers mostly use them for
lighting. It is too expensive for villagers to use those energy sources for
cooking and heating purposes, as shown by 68% of respondents in the woodland
depleted villages and 71% in the woodland abundant villages (Table 1).
Non-affordability of source of energy other than fuelwood
has intensified woodland degradation in southern Africa (Banks et al., 1996; Rathogwa
et al., 1999). More than half of
the population use wood daily for cooking and heating, which is contributed
by the fact that household fuelwood harvesting is a
free commodity in rural areas. The use of wood especially
for cooking and heating is also influenced by culture. It is widely believed
among VhaVenda and Shangaan
elders that porridge cooked using fuelwood have
better taste than that cooked using electricity, which makes wood to be the
first choice energy source for cooking by elders in rural areas. The
preference of fuelwood particularly for barbecue �braai� is also
popular in urban areas, which is increasing the commercialisation of fuelwood. In 2005, a 10 kg pile
of Colophospermum mopane fuelwood was sold for R8 at the Sibasa
market near Thohoyandou, Limpopo
Province (Makhado et al., 2009). Colophospermum mopane is highly valued by villagers for fuelwood because its wood produces long-lasting coals,
which Prior and Cutler (1992) attributed to high content of calcium crystals
in its wood. The high quality of fire produced by Colophospermum
mopane and its abundance due to its ability to
coppice after harvesting makes it highly preferred by villagers as a primary
source of energy.� Other
species used by the villagers for fuelwood were Acacia nigrescens, Combretum apiculatum, Dalbergia melanoxylon, Dichrostachys cinerea, Diospyros mespiliformis, Euclea divinorum, Euphorbia confinalis,
Gymnosporia senegalensis,
Peltophorum africanum, Philnotra violecea, Terminalia sericea, Trichilia emetica, Ximenia caffra
and Ziziphus mucronata. Volume of fuelwood
utilised The mean amount of fuelwood
used by a family of between 5 and 8 people for cooking porridge day-1 is 6.8 � 0.05 kg in the woodland depleted (Table 2a), resulting to
2 482 kg of fuelwood used year-1 family-1.
In contrast, a similar-sized family in the woodland abundant villages used
8.2 � 0.16 kg day-1 (Table 2b), resulting to 2
993 kg of fuelwood used year-1 family-1. The mean volume of fuelwood consumed day-1
cooking family-1 was 0.022 m3 (~8.03
m3 year-1) in the woodland depleted villages and 0.032 m3 (~11.68
m3 year-1) in the woodland abundant villages. In
contrast to woodland abundant villages, villagers in the woodland depleted
villages used as little fuelwood as possible to
save for the next day, an indicative of fuelwood
scarcity in those villages. The uses of Colophospermum mopane
for fuelwood in most villages of Limpopo Province mopane belt is
presented in Table 3. Data from other studies on fuelwood
use were compared to the current study. These studies are within the same
locality, but the amount of wood used for cooking varies. Combining these
results, it was estimated that a family, consisting of a mean of 7 people per
household in the rural areas of Limpopo Province mopane belt, uses approximately 9.04 kg of fuelwood day-1 for cooking meal (Table 3).
These result to an estimated 3 300 kg of fuelwood
used for cooking household-1 year-1. This estimation
might have been influenced by a mean (14.9 kg) calculated by Liengme (1983). A better estimation might be obtained by
using a median to avoid overestimation of the results. It is therefore
estimated that approximately 7.8 kg of fuelwood is
used household-1 for cooking day-1 meal or 2 847
kg year-1 in the Limpopo Province mopane belt. Distance travelled
and time taken to harvest fuelwood Drastic reduction of the
surrounding woodland resources in rural areas has increased the distance
travelled and time taken by women and girls to harvest fuelwood.
More than 1 km is travelled by women and girls to harvest fuelwood
from the surrounding woodland. In the woodland depleted villages, between one
and five hours are spent by females when harvesting spent by females in the
woodland abundant villages. Increased distance and
time for fuelwood harvesting was also reported in
most parts of southern Africa. Liengme (1983)
estimated that women in Giyani, Limpopo
Province, South Africa travelled between four and five kilometres, taking
three to six hours to harvest fuelwood. This is
close to an average of four hours spent by women in the Mametja
village, Limpopo Province, South Africa (Twine et
al., 2003). In Namibia, women travelled between eight and ten km to
harvest fuelwood (Erkkil� and Siiskonen, 1992),
while women in certain woodland abundant villages of Zimbabwe spent between
one and seven hours (Campbell et al.,
1993). Social
impacts of fuelwood harvesting
Long distance travelled
and time spent during fuelwood harvesting limits
women involvement in other socio-economic development activities. This also
results in women suffering from back pains and leg pains (Madzibane
and Potgieter, 1999). This could concurrently
increase the use of less preferred species for fuelwood,
which is species that emits high amount of carbon and smoke particulates.
This might have a negative effect on the health of fuelwood
users, mostly women and girls (Terblanche et al.,
1994). Construction of traditional structures
Seventy two percent of the respondents in the
woodland depleted villages and 92% in the woodland abundant villages (Table
1), still rely on wood for the construction of traditional structures. Colophospermum mopane is
the favoured species for the construction purposes,
and accounts for more than 90% of timber used for construction of traditional
structures (Liengme 1983; Van Wyk
& Gericke 2000). But, scarcity of Colophospermum mopane poles
has led to the use of other species such as Combretum
apiculatum. Traditional
huts
Construction of huts using poles is still a major
practice in the sampled villages. Huts are constructed either as round or in
a rectangular shape. The mean volume of poles used as main beams of a kitchen
roof in the woodland depleted villages is 0.204 m3, 0.149 m3 for
children hut and 0.269 m3 for adult hut (Table 2a), opposed to
0.238 m3 for kitchen, 0.297 m3 for children hut and
0.308 m3 for adult hut in the woodland abundant villages (Table
2b). The brandrings of a kitchen roof in the
woodland depleted villages requires a mean of 0.246 m3, 0.154 m3
for children hut and 0.213 m3 for adult hut (Table 2a),
opposed to 0.279 m3 for kitchen, 0.295 m3 for children
hut and 0.343 m3 for adult hut in the woodland abundant villages
(Table 2b). A mean volume of poles utilised to construct the roof support of
the kitchen is 1.332 m3 in the woodland depleted villages (Table
2a), compared to 1.527 m3 in the woodland abundant villages (Table
2b). The mean volume of poles used to construct the wall of a kitchen hut is
4.536 m3 in the woodland depleted villages (Table 2a) compared to
4.811 m3 in the woodland abundant villages (Table 2b). The mean
volume of poles used to construct the wall of the roof of a kitchen in the
woodland depleted villages is 0.277 m3, 0.149 m3 for
children hut and 0.269 m3 for adult hut (Table 2a), opposed to
0.238 m3 for kitchen, 0.297 m3 for children hut and
0.308 m3 for adult hut in woodland abundant villages (Table 2b). The amount of poles used in the woodland depleted
villages is about 1.315 m3, which is relatively similar to 1.405 m3
used in the woodland abundant villages. However, this is less than the
3.02 m3 of poles used to construct a hut in Zimbabwe, but close to
the 1.22 m3 poles used by Tsonga�s in
the Limpopo Province (Liegme
1983; Cunningham and Davis, 1997). The number of huts per household in the
Greater Giyani Municipality is between three and
four (Statistics S.A.: Census, 2001), which can be estimated that three huts
per household in the woodland depleted villages require about 3.95 m3 of
poles and 5.26 m3 for four huts. By comparison, three huts per household
in the woodland abundant villages require about 4.22 m3 of poles
and 5.62 m3 for four huts. Maize granaries
Villagers still construct maize granaries stores
to preserve harvested crop such as maize. The granary can either be
constructed in the roof of a kitchen or alongside the hut. The smoke produced
by the kitchen fire limits insect infestations to the preserved crops at the
roof of a kitchen granary (Mashabane et al., 2001). A mean wood of 0.273 m3
is utilised when building the wall of alongside hut granary and 0.361 m3
for the granary in the roof of a kitchen in the woodland depleted villages
(Table 2a), compared to 1.596 m3 utilised for building the wall
for alongside hut granary and 0.363 m3 for a granary in the roof
of a kitchen in the woodland abundant villages (Table 2b). The estimated mean
amount of poles used to construct a medium sized outside hut granary in the
woodland depleted villages is 0.563 m3 and 0.309 m3 in
woodland abundant villages (P =0.140), while a granary in the roof of a kitchen
use 0.537 m3 poles in the woodland depleted villages and 0.873 m3
in the woodland abundant villages. The lifespan of granary store constructed at the
top of a kitchen roof was estimated to be between 10 and15 years, which is
the same as a hut. Conversely, a granary store built separately from the
kitchen hut lasts for little more than five years, which is similar to the
findings of Mashabane et al. (2001). The
construction of a granary store on the roof of a hut is difficult and often
requires traditional skills, which are now lacking mostly to the youth.
Consequently, regular construction of outside granaries will be common,
increasing the probability of large volume of wood consumption. Fencing
Mashabane
et al. (2001) stated that not all poles used for fencing are from Colophospermum mopane
tree. This study found that villagers also use Acacia nigrescens, Combretum
apiculatum, Dalbergia melanoxylon,
Terminalia sericea,
Dichrostachys cinerea and
Combretum hereroense
poles for fencing. The supporting poles tend to be spaced further apart to
about 1m when fencing a household stand. Villagers indicated that the fence
should last for more than 10 years, if there is regular replacement of old
and rotten poles every year, especially when species other than Colophospermum mopane are
used.� Construction of a fence in the
woodland depleted villages required a mean of 11.433 m3 for the
main poles and 1.243 m3 for the supporting poles (Table 2a), as
opposed to 14.883 m3 used to construct the main poles and 1.324 m3
for supporting poles in the woodland abundant villages (Table 2b). The
estimated mean amount of poles required for construction of fence in a family
is 6.338 m3 in the woodland depleted villages and 8.104 m3 in
the woodland abundant villages. Animal kraals Kraals are constructed either square or
rectangular shape. It requires more poles to construct cattle kraal than goat
and pig kraals. A mean volume of 17.183 m3 is used to construct a
cattle kraal, 1.947 m3 for a goat kraal and 0.457 m3
for pig kraal in the woodland depleted villages (Table 2a), compared to
38.170 m3 used to construct a cattle kraal, 4.826 m3 for
a goat kraal and 0.932 m3 for a pig kraal in the woodland abundant
villages (Table 2b). The choice of species to use when constructing a kraal
is less important as these structures are annually moved to avoid animals
being trapped by mud during the rainy season, and to limit foot diseases in
animals (Lowore et
al., 1995). This means that every year, new poles are harvested to
renovate or construct new kraals. During the renovation of the kraals, old
and rotten poles are utilised for fuelwood
purposes. Utensils
Preference of Colophospermum
mopane for construction of traditional structures
The pole of Colophospermum mopane is
mostly preferred to use in construction because it has a high durability of
between 10 and 15 years, but Mashabane et al. (2001) report a lifespan of about 25
years. Colophospermum mopane has
the ability to re-grow after harvesting and able to resist the effects of
wood borers increasing its preference in construction purposes. The poles are
slightly scorched by fire and then debarked to enhance their resistance to
the effects of termites. The inner barks are used for making ropes, while the
outer barks are used for fuel.� The durability of Colophospermum mopane wood
is due to the fact that it has a high wood density of around 1200 kg/m3
(Goldsmith and Carter, 1981). It contains chemicals that resist the effects
of termites and wood borers. The wood cell of Colophospermum mopane and Combretum apiculatum
are packed with crystals of calcium oxalate, which results in a dense wood,
as opposed to Acacia species (Prior
and Cutler, 1992). Also, the secondary metabolites collectively known as extractives, contributes
to the final density of wood.� Colophospermum mopane occurs in relatively harsh, dry growing
environments, those harsh conditions increases the content of extractives in
the plant (Wesley-Smith pers. comm.
2005). Scarcity of Colophospermum
mopane poles has led villagers to use Combretum apiculatum
and Acacia nigrescens
poles during construction of structures. Poles from species other than Colophospermum mopane do
not last long due to the effects of termites and wood borers, which implies a
shorter lifespan of structures leading to a much faster replacement rate of
structures and thus a higher demand. The non-wood product examined in this
study is the mopane worms, larvae of the moth Imbrasia belina. Conclusion This study has provided
some basic estimates of wood products used in rural livelihood. Colophospermum mopane is
the ideal species for fuelwood supply and poles
used for construction of traditional structures. Circles of degradation are
common around the villages, indicating unsustainable resource use practices.
Uncertain in the management of natural resources in rural areas as a result
of high rate of unemployment coupled with poverty and population growth,
which has increased the demand. Land use conversion and unclear
responsibility in the management of woodland has also exacerbated the
situation. In the light of this study, the followings options are proposed: a) Implementation of means that would ensure efficient
use of woodland resources. b) Initiation of community projects that aims at
conservation of natural resources and eradication of poverty in rural areas. c) Initiation
of conservation education programmes to educate local people (young and
old) about the need for conservation and its subsequent benefits. Such
programmes need to target females as they constitute the majority of the
illiterate people in the studied villages. d) Application of coppice woodland management, method
and season of woodland resource harvesting in rural areas. e) Greater cooperation between villagers, traditional
leaders and conservation ����������� departments
in an attempt to conserve woodland resources. f)
Setting up of a committee comprised of the above-mentioned people to
take the responsibility in the management of woodland and for amendment of
permits, which are in line with villagers� needs and resource availability. g) Sourcing of funds to raise conservation awareness at
village level and for capacity development. The awareness campaign needs to
include coppice management, fire management and project management. Acknowledgements The author acknowledges funds provided by the
Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT), the National Research
Foundation (NRF) and the Department of Science and Technology (DST)
administered by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). Dr
Bob Scholes and Mr Graham von Maltitz
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Figure 1. The
six selected rural villages in the Greater Giyani
Municipality. These villages are located in the northeastern
part of the Lowveld, Limpopo
Province, South Africa. Data source: National Land Cover 2000. Table 1. Socio-economic characteristics of the selected
villages in the Greater Giyani Municipality.
n = number of
people interviewed a =
estimated by the community leaders b =
percentages do not always add up to 100 due to rounding off and lack of
answers by some of the participants Table 2a. Mean measurement of the uses of Colophospermum
mopane for fuelwood
and poles used in construction by villagers in woodland depleted villages of
the Greater Giyani, Limpopo
Province, South Africa.
* = estimated as the poles were
plastered with mud soil Table 2b. Mean measurement of the uses of Colophospermum
mopane for fuelwood
and poles used in construction by villagers in woodland abundant villages of
the Greater Giyani, Limpopo
Province, South Africa.��
* = estimated as the poles were
plastered with mud soil Table 3. Estimated mean amount of fuelwood used for
cooking by rural inhabitants in the Limpopo
Province. Data derived from previous studies and current study on fuelwood use along the Limpopo
Province mopane belt.
*Mashabane et al.
(2001)� ����������������� +Woodland depleted villages **Madzibane and Potgieter
(1999)� � ++Woodland abundant villages��������� ***Liengme (1983)������������������������������� |
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