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Ethnobotanical
Leaflets 13: 508-21 , 2009. Medicinal Plants for Snake Bite Treatment -
Future Focus Kuntal Das HOD, Department of Pharmacognosy and
Phytochemistry, Issued Abstract
Snake bite is a major health hazard that
leads to high mortality and great suffering in victims. The remedies are of
great interest since they may have recognizable therapeutic or toxic effects
and are steeped in cultural beliefs that invariably conflict with formal
health care practices. The study of the interaction between plants and people
is invaluable in discovering new herbal medicines and plant-derived drugs.
The present study was aimed at conserving largely herbal drug knowledge and
availing to the scientific world the plant therapies used as antivenom in the
society. The long-term goal is to actualize conventional snake bite therapy
options with effective, cheap, accessible and less allergic plant compounds. Key words: Anti venom; Medicinal Plant; Remedies; Snake bite. Introduction
Snake bites were considered emergency threats for human life.
Perhaps, venomous bites show as double teeth marks than ordinary bites. Snake venom is one of the most amazing and
unique adoptions of snakes in animal planet. Venoms are mainly toxic modified
saliva consisting of a complex mixture of chemicals called enzymes found in
snake poisons throughout the world known to man. Broadly there are two types
of toxins namely neurotoxins, which attack the central nervous system and
haemotoxins which target the circulatory system. Snakes with neurotoxic venom
include cobras, mambas, sea snakes, kraits and coral snakes. Snakes with
haemotoxic venom include rattlesnakes, copper head and cottonmouths (Blanchard,
2001).
It is a common belief that snakes are venomous. Of the 2,700 known
species of snakes, only about 300 are venomous (Internet, 2007). The most
common symptoms of poisonous snake bites likely bloody wound discharge, fang
marks in the skin and swelling at the site of the bite, severe localized
pain, diarrhea, burning, convulsions, fainting, dizziness, weakness, blurred
vision, excessive sweating fever, increased thirst, nausea, vomiting,
numbness, tingling and rapid pulse (Internet,
2008). Mainly the venom is made in special glands located on the head of the
animal and that are delivered by transferring method from gland to prey (Internet,
2007).
Worldwide about 30,000 to 40,000 people die annually of snake bites.
Of these, about 25,000 people die in
The plant constituents have identified which are used to
neutralize the effects of snake venoms. The way of management of snake bites through herbals are by treating
with single herbal drugs or in combination applications, because of it
designed to control infection, stop pain, improve symptoms, correct
imbalance, adjust immune system and boost energy for better health and
quality of life. With reflection to that area, an attempt is being made to
collect available information about some medicinal plants advancement against
snakebites and to present in the form of a comprehensive article. Recent
scientific investigations have confirmed the efficacy of many of these
preparations, some of which are remarkably effective. Traditional Indian
medicinal drugs viz. Excoecaria agallocha,
Gloriosa superba, Nerium
oleander, Sarsaparilla hemidesmus and many others are effectively used for snake bites but still lot of
clinical and pre-clinical research needs for the evidence. The herbs which appear most effective as
per the symptoms of snakebites are relatively non-toxic and have substantial
documented efficacy, among them some herbs (Aristolochia species, Cissus
assamica, Echinacea species, Guiera
senegalensis, Hemidesmus indicus,
Parkia biglobosa, Securidaca longipedunculata, Tamarindus indica, Trianosperma tayuya, Thea sinensis,
Withania somnifera) are
enlisted with proper informations for future research (Table 1). Table-1. Plants used against snake
bites.
Aristolochia odoratissima and Aristolochia fordiana (Aristolochiaceae)
Aristolochia is a native to Mexico,
Central America, Antilles, Colombia, [Ecuador], Venezuela, Brazil, Peru,
Bolivia, and Paraguay. Aristolochia species are characterized
by the outlandish shape of the flower (Internet, 2008). The leaves are ovate, 3.5
cm long and 2.5 cm wide, petiole 3-6.5 cm long. It has glabrescent vines with presence of
pseudostipules. The flowers are axillary, solitary, on leafy
branchlets, peduncle and ovary 4.5-10 cm long, ebracteolate,
gynostemium are 3.5-5 mm long (Internet,
2008). Aristophyllide A (Terpenoids), Aristolochic acid, (-)-Cubebin (Lignan) are the main active constituents. Traditional uses Flowers are used as dyes. Aristolochic acid is said to cure wounds or snake bites in
a spectacular way. Furthermore, it contains a disinfectant, which drains off fluid
from the wound. Research evidences To test the efficacy of the plant,
doses of 60, 40, 30, and 20 ml of A. odoratissima aqueous extract
obtained from 30 g of leaves in 150 mL of water, were given to 4 groups of 40
mice 96 hours before i.p. injection of Bothrops atrox venom. It was
observed that animals that received orally the higher doses of plant extract
(60 and 40 mL) protected against the highest dose of venom (16 mg/kg) since
mortality descended from 100% to 80% (Usubillaga et al., 2005). Oral administration of the water and
alcohol extracts from Cissus assamica and Aristolochia fordiana, and
the water extracts from Desmodium microphyllum, Cynanthum paniculatum and
Polygonum cillinerve are very helpful in reducing the acute death caused
by ET-1 (Endothelin-1)
and S6b (sarafotoxin S6b) (i.v.), while the extracts from Cissus assamica,
Aristolochia fordiana and Cynanthum paniculatum can dilate the
vasoconstriction by ET-1 (Endothelin-1) in a dose dependent manner.
Pharmacodynamic parameters have shown that the potencies of alcohol extracts
from Cissus assamica and Aristolochia fordiana are greater than
that of Cynanthum paniculatum. These data suggest that traditional
anti-snake venom herbs have antagonizing effects on ET-1 (Endothelin-1)
(Wang et al., 1997). Cissus assamica (Vitaceae)
Cissus plant was originated from The main
active principle of this plant is resverotrol
(3,4'5-trihydroxytransstilbene). Research evidences
Cissus assamica (Laws.) is
a herbal medicine used to treat snake bite in Guangxi province. Resverotrol
(3,4'5-trihydroxytrans stilbene) was isolated from the fraction of ethyl
acetate part of ethanolic extract and
showed antagonistic effect for endothelin, studied in both in vivo and in vitro. They also antagonized the lethal effects of ET-1 (Endothelin-1)
in mice and inhibited blood pressure elevation induced by ET-1 (Endothelin-1).
It is possible to find ET antagonists in Chinese anti-snake venom medicinal
herbs (Yang et al., 1998). Echinacea
angustifolia and Echinacea
purpurea
(Asteraceae)
It is known as Echinacea, purple coneflower, coneflower and American
coneflower. It is native of the prairies of the
The main phytoconstituents are volatile oil (including humulene
and caryophylene), glycoside (echinacoside), polysaccharides, polyacetylenes,
isobutylalkamines, echinaceine, phenolics, inulin, betain, resins and
sesquiterpene. Therapeutic uses The extracts exhibited immunostimulant
properties and are mainly used in the prophylaxis and therapy of colds, flu
and septic complaints (Hostettmann, 2003). The Indian plants are used it as
an antiseptic, an analgesic, and to treat poisonous insect bites, toothaches,
sore throat, wounds and communicable diseases such as mumps, smallpox, and
measles. Echinacea had been used by
American Indians as a remedy for snakebites. An infusion of the plant was
used to treat snake bites. Echinacea
is believed to inhibit hyaluronidase, a component of snake venom (Holisticonline.com, 2008). The root
stalk and rhizomes are used to treat snake bites. Research evidence Echinacoside is a caffeoyl conjugate of
Echinacea with known
anti-hyaluronidase properties. The wound healing effects of Echinacea on
vocal fold wound healing and functional voice outcomes have been investigated
in pigs (Rousseau et al., 2006). Guiera senegalensis (Combretaceae) It is a shrub of the savannah region of West and Traditional Uses In Research evidences The
extract of the leaves of Guiera
senegalensis was found to detoxify (in
vitro) venom from two common northern Nigerian snake species, Echis carinatus and Naja nigricollis, in separate
experiments. There was a remarkable reduction in the mortality of albino mice
after intra-peritoneal (i.p.) administration of reconstituted venom incubated
with the extract, when compared to those challenged with the venom only. The
survival of the animals exposed to the venom incubated with the different
concentrations of the extract was used as the in vitro detoxification parameter (Abubakar
et al., 2000). Hemidesmus
indicus (Asclepiadaceae) Indian
Sarsaparilla (Hemidesmus indicus) is a species of plant that is found
in South Asia
belongs to the family Asclepiadaceae. In Ayurveda
it is known as ananthamoola. It is also called the False Sarsaparilla.
It is found from the upper Gangetic plain eastwards to Flower contains hyperoside,
isoquercitin and rutin. Leaves having tannins 2.5 %. Roots are reported to
contain sitoserol. A new ester identified as lupeol octacosanoate in addition
to the known compounds viz., lupeol, α-amyrin, ß-amyrin, lupeol acetate,
(-) amyrin acetate, and hexatriacontane. Therapeutic
Use The plant is used for demulcent,
nutritional disorders, syphilis, chronic rheumatism, gravel and other urinary
diseases diuretic, syphilis, gonorrhea, blood purifier and skin affections.
It is administered in the form of powder, infusion or decoction as syrup. The
roots are used as addition in main treatment of snake bite and scorpion sting
(Hemidesmus indicus: Hemidesmus, Internet, 2002). Research evidences 2-Hydroxy-4-methoxy benzoic acid,
isolated and purified from the Indian medicinal plant H. indicus
possessed anti-snake venom activity. Rabbits immunized with Vipera russellii venom in the presence
and absence of the compound along with Freund's complete adjuvant, produced a
precipitating band in immunogel diffusion and immunogel electrophoresis. The
venom neutralizing capacity of this antiserum showed positive adjuvant
effects as evident by the higher neutralization capacity (lethal and
hemorrhage) when compared with the antiserum raised with venom alone (Alam and Gomes, 1998). An organic acid, isolated and purified
from the root extract of an Indian medicinal plant sarsaparilla Hemidesmus
indicus R. Br, possessed viper venom inhibitory activity. HI-RVIF
significantly antagonized viper venom-induced lethal, haemorrhagic, coagulant
and anticoagulant activity in experimental rodents (Alam et al., 1994). Parkia biglobosa (Leguminosae) It is known as African
Locust Bean Tree. These trees are not normally cultivated but can be seen in
population of two or more in the Therapeutic uses Stem bark of P.
biglobosa is prescribed in the treatment of many infectious diseases,
violent stomachaches, diarrhoea, pneumonia, bronchitis, severe cough,
tracheitis, wounds, dental caries, conjunctivitis, amibiasis, otitis,
dermatosis and sexually transmitted diseases. Research evidences A water-methanol extract of
P. biglobosa stem bark
significantly (p<0.001) protected the chick biventer cervicis (cbc) muscle
preparation from N. nigricollis
venom-induced inhibition of neurally evoked twitches when it was added to the
bath 3-5 min before or after the venom. The extract also reduced the loss of
responses to acetylcholine (Ach), carbachol and KCl, which are normally
blocked by N. nigricollis venom,
and significantly reduced the contractures of the preparation induced by venom.
P. biglobosa extract (75, 150 and
300 µg/ml) significantly (p<0.05) protect murine muscle cells in culture
against the cytotoxic effects of N.
nigricollis and E. ocellatus
venoms (Asuzu and Harvey, 2003). Securidaca longipedunculata (Polygalaceae)
It is known as Violet
tree (Eng.w); krinkhout (Afr.); Mpesu (tshiVenda); Mmaba (Tswana). It occurs
in various parts of Western, Northern and It contains beta-D-(3,4-disinapoyl)
fructofuranosyl-alpha-D-(6-sinapoyl) glucopyranoside, flavonoids, xanthones and beta-D-(3-sinapoyl) fructofuranosyl-
alpha-D-(6-sinapoyl) glucopyranoside. Therapeutic uses The roots and bark are used for
treating chest complaints, headache, inflammation, abortion, ritual suicide,
tuberculosis, gonorrhea, infertility problems, venereal diseases,
constipation, snake bite and coughs. The roots are used to treat snake bites (Ndou,
2006). Research evidences The anti-snake venom properties of S. longipedunculata root extract have
been evaluated in rats by monitoring the levels of the liver enzymes, alanine
aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline
phosphatase (ALP), creatinine kinase (CPK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and
amylase. The extract produced a significant (P < 0.05) dose-dependent
alteration in the serum enzymes and urea analyzed. The alterations in these
parameters may be responsible for pharmacological activity of the plant
extract (Wannang et al., 2005). Tamarindus indica (Papilionaceae)
It is known as Tamarind, Tamarindo, Tamarin and Sampalok. The Tamarind is the only species
of the genus
Tamarindus. The
tamarind is native to tropical The main constituents are fruit acids
(20%) and sugar (up to 35%). Furthermore, small amounts of terpenes
(limonene, geraniol), phenylpropanoids (safrole, cinnamic acid, ethyl
cinnamate), methyl salicylate, pyrazine and alkylthiazoles are also reported. Therapeutic uses The pods are fed to livestock, and the
pulp within the pods is used to make beverages, curries, chutneys and sauces.
The juice is used to pickle fish in Research evidences Tamarind seed extract inhibited the PLA2
(Phospholipase A2), protease, hyaluronidase, l-amino acid
oxidase and 5'-nucleotidase enzyme activities of venom in a dose-dependent
manner. The extract neutralized the degradation of the beta chain of human
fibrinogen and indirect hemolysis caused by venom. Edema, hemorrhage and
myotoxic effects including lethality, induced by venom were neutralized
significantly when different doses of the extract were preincubated with
venom before the assays (Ushanandini et
al., 2006). Trianosperma tayuya (Cucurbitaceae) It
is known as Tayuya, Taiuia, Taioia, Abobrinha-do-mato,
Cabeca-de-Negro and Tomba. Tayuya is a woody vine
found throughout Main constituents are
29-nor-cucurbitacin glucosides, alkaloids, amentoflavone, cayaponosides,
cucurbitacins, cucurbitane triterpenoids, datiscetin, eriodictyol,
flavonoides, isoorientin, leucocyanidol, orientin, malic acid, resins,
robinetin, saponins and sterols. Therapeutic uses It having versatile uses,
viz, diuretic to treat diarrhea,
epilepsy, for metabolism regulation, backache, sciatic pain, headaches, gout,
neuralgia, constipation, anemia, cholera, dyspepsia, stomach problems,
fatigue and debility, skin disorders, arthritis and rheumatism, syphilis and
also includes snake bite and rheumatism. The roots are used to treat snake
bites. Research evidences Some species have been
selected and tested for analgesic activity (number of contortions) and
anti-inflammatory activity (Evans blue dye diffusion--1% solution) according
to Whittle's technique (intraperitoneal administration of 0.1 N-acetic acid
0.1 ml/10 g) in mice. Previous oral administration of a 10% infusion (dry
plant) or 20% (fresh plant) corresponding to 1 or 2 g/kg of Apuleia leiocarpa, Casearia sylvestris,
Brunfelsia uniflora, Chiococca brachiata, Cynara scolymus, Dorstenia
brasiliensis, Elephantopus scaber, Marsypianthes chamaedrys, Mikania
glomerata and Trianosperma tayuya demonstrated analgesic and/or
anti-inflammatory activities of varied intensity (Ruppelt et al., 1991). Thea sinensis/ Camellia
sinensis (Theaceae) Tea is a beverage made from the
processed leaf of a plant. White tea,
green tea,
oolong
and black tea
are all harvested from this species, but are processed differently to attain
different levels of oxidation. This plant is a tropical
evergreen tree that will grow to about fifty feet high. It has glossy
leathery elliptic-to-lance-shaped dark green leaves and in the winter
produces fragrant whitish flowers. The flowers are followed by woody capsules
each of which contain three seeds. Caffeine, theobromine and theophylline are the main constituents of it. Therapeutic uses Caffeine relieves migraines. Black tea
kills dental plaque also used as digestive
tonic, vomit inductor, cough suppressant, anti-oxidant, natural dye and
emollient. Research evidences Antivenin activity of
melanin extracted from black tea (MEBT) was reported for the first time. The
antagonistic effect of MEBT was evaluated for Agkistrodon contortrix
laticinctus (broadbanded copperhead), Agkistrodon halys blomhoffii (Japanese
mamushi), and Crotalus atrox (western diamondback rattlesnake) snake venoms
administered i.p. to ICR mice. The greatest antivenin effect of MEBT was
found against Japanese mamushi snake venom. An immediate injection of MEBT
substantially reduced the toxic effect of venom and extended time at the 50%
level of survival up to 52.3 ± 2.3 hour (Hung et al., 2004). Withania somnifera (Solanaceae) It is known as ashwagandha, Indian ginseng, and winter cherry. It is a native of Alkaloids
and withanolides are the main constituents. Therapeutic use The
plant has been used as an aphrodisiac, liver tonic, anti-inflammatory agent,
astringent, and more recently to treat bronchitis, asthma, ulcers,
emaciation, insomnia, and senile dementia. Clinical trials and animal
research support the use of ashwaganda for anxiety, cognitive and
neurological disorders, inflammation, and Parkinson's disease. The
roots are used to treat snake bites. Research evidences A
hyaluronidase inhibitor glycoprotein (WSG) was purified from W. somnifera. The glycoprotein
inhibited the hyaluronidase activity of cobra (Naja naja) and viper (Daboia
russelii) venoms, which was demonstrated by zymogram assay and staining
of the skin tissues for differential activity. WSG completely inhibited the
activity of the enzymes at a concentration of 1:1 w/w of venom to WSG (Machiah
et al., 2006). The glycoprotein inhibited the
phospholipase A(2) activity of NN-XIa-PLA(2,) isolated from the cobra venom,
completely at a mole-to-mole ratio of 1:2 (NN-XIa-PLA(2): WSG) but failed to
neutralize the toxicity of the molecule. However, it reduced the toxicity as
well as prolonged the death time of the experimental mice approximately 10
times when compared to venom alone. The interaction of the WSG with the
PLA(2) is confirmed by fluorescence quenching and gel-permeation
chromatography. Application of the plant extract on snakebite wound confirms
the medicinal value associated with the plant (Machiah and Gowda, 2006). Conclusion
Few plants were collected from the natural sources which are effective
for snake bites over thousand of years and documented in this review with few
information. This is my humble attempt to make a comprehensive report to all
scientists whose contributions have led to an existence of such a huge ocean of
knowledge on this topic. In spite of having enormous data on the subject,
certain aspects of it still need a further probe. There are many areas where few things are
unclearly defined, that are needs substantial amount of clinical research
work with respect to herbals against snake bites. As per literature survey,
it can be conclude that combine applications of plants extracts shows it’s
more physiological effect than sole extracts for the remedy of snake bite.
So, the variation of antivenom medicinal plants in this herbal world
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